Cob is definitely not fast, and is very permanent (centuries if it has a good foundation and roof.) If you want a cheap, fast temporary house that is well insulated, you might be able to build a wooden frame and roof, then stack bales under the roof and plaster them. If you don't take the careful steps to make it long-lasting, it would probably be fairly fast. It will be cheap only if you have straw harvesting close by, and maybe not then, depending on the market. For a temporary
shelter, hay bales would probably work and be considerably cheaper.
The size of building you want (including wall height) will influence this advice. The bigger it is, the more important it will be to build well and add the strengthening touches.